• Some / any / no / every
• Past perfect
• Present perfect continuous
• Relative clauses
• Passive voice
• Second conditional
• Gerund vs. infinitive
• Phrasal verbs

Some / any / no / every

Some for affirmative, any for negative and questions, no as a determiner. Compounds: something, anything, nothing, everything, someone, anyone, no one, everyone, somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere.

🔹 Some para afirmativas, any para negativas y preguntas, no como determinante. Compuestos: something, anything, nothing, everything, someone, anyone, no one, everyone, somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere.

I bought something. She didn't buy anything. Nobody came.

Past perfect

Had + past participle. For an action that happened before another past action.

🔹 Had + participio pasado. Para una acción anterior a otra acción pasada.

When I arrived, she had already left.

Present perfect continuous

Have/has been + verb-ing. Emphasizes duration of an action from past to present.

🔹 Have/has been + verbo-ing. Enfatiza la duración de una acción del pasado al presente.

I have been studying English for two years.

Relative clauses

Who (people), which (things), that (both), whose (possession), where (places).

🔹 Who (personas), which (cosas), that (ambos), whose (posesión), where (lugares).

The man who lives next door is a doctor.

Passive voice

Be + past participle. The subject receives the action.

🔹 Be + participio pasado. El sujeto recibe la acción.

Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. English is spoken here.

Second conditional

If + past simple, would + infinitive. For imaginary situations.

🔹 If + past simple, would + infinitivo. Para situaciones imaginarias.

If I had more money, I would travel the world.

Gerund vs. infinitive

Some verbs + gerund (enjoy, finish, avoid...). Some verbs + infinitive (want, decide, plan...). After prepositions, always gerund.

🔹 Algunos verbos + gerundio (enjoy, finish, avoid...). Algunos verbos + infinitivo (want, decide, plan...). Después de preposiciones, siempre gerundio.

I enjoy reading. I want to read. I'm interested in reading.

Phrasal verbs

Verb + particle with a new meaning. Can be separable or inseparable.

🔹 Verbo + partícula con un significado nuevo. Pueden ser separables o inseparables.

Turn off the TV. = Turn it off. I'm looking for my keys.